Gender a výzkum / Gender and Research 2021, 22 (1): 16-35 | DOI: 10.13060/gav.2021.005

Exclusion from Social Relations in Later Life and the Role of Gender: A Heuristic Model

Marja Aartsen, Kieran Walsh, Feliciano Villar, Ariela Lowenstein, Ruth Katz, Sigal Pearl Naim, Andreas Motel-Klingebiel, Anna Wanka, Anna Urbaniak, Thomas Hansen, Lucie Vidovićová

Articles Being socially connected is a universal human need, but a substantial number of older men and women are or become excluded from these connections in later life. Exclusion from social relations (ESR) is unwanted as it undermines people's ability to lead a healthy, active, and independent life. Policies to reduce this form of exclusion have been limited in effectiveness, due in part to a broader lack of knowledge about the dynamics of social exclusion in older ages and the intersection of social exclusion with gender constructions. To advance our understanding of ESR in later life, we develop a heuristic model based on theories and previous empirical studies. Considering the gendered constructing forces of ESR in older age that can potentially lead to loneliness and reduced health and wellbeing, the model identifies individual drivers, such as biopsychosocial conditions, personal standards and life- -course transitions, and macro-level drivers, such as norms and welfare state provisions. This model can serve as a conceptual platform for further theoretical development and empirical study on the gendered construction of ESR in later life. While our focus is on drivers of ESR and its outcomes, potential reversed effects are also discussed.

Keywords: social exclusion, social relations, older age

Received: September 17, 2020; Revised: June 29, 2021; Accepted: June 29, 2021; Published: August 30, 2021  Show citation

ACS AIP APA ASA Harvard Chicago Chicago Notes IEEE ISO690 MLA NLM Turabian Vancouver
Aartsen, Marja, Kieran Walsh, Feliciano Villar, Ariela Lowenstein, Ruth Katz, Sigal Pearl Naim, Andreas Motel-Klingebiel, Anna Wanka, Anna Urbaniak, Thomas Hansen, and Lucie Vidovićová. 2021. "Exclusion from Social Relations in Later Life and the Role of Gender: A Heuristic Model." Gender a výzkum / Gender and Research 22(1):16-35.
Download citation

References

  1. Aartsen, M. J., T. Van Tilburg, C. H. Smits, K. C. Knipscheer. 2004. A Longitudinal Study of the Impact of Physical and Cognitive Decline on the Personal Network in Old Age. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 21 (2): 249-266, https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407504041386. Go to original source...
  2. Aartsen, M., M. Veenstra, T. Hansen. 2017. Social Pathways to Health: On the Mediating Role of the Social Network in the Relation between Socio-Economic Position and Health. Social Science and Medicine - Population Health 3: 419-426, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2017.05.006. Go to original source...
  3. Acierno, R., A. A. Rheingold, H. S. Resnick, D. G. Kilpatrick. 2004. Predictors of Fear of Crime in Older Adults. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 18 (3): 385-396, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0887-6185(03)00012-4. Go to original source...
  4. Ajrouch, K. J., A. Y. Blandon, T. C. Antonucci. 2005. Social Networks among Men and Women: The Effects of Age and Socioeconomic Status. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences 60 (6): S311-S317, https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/60.6.S311. Go to original source...
  5. Alcaraz, K. I., K. S. Eddens, J. L. Blase, W. R. Diver, A. V. Patel, L. R. Teras, et al. 2019. Social Isolation and Mortality in US Black and White Men and Women. American Journal of Epidemiology 188 (1): 102-109, https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwy231. Go to original source...
  6. Antonucci, T. C., K. J. Ajrouch, K. S. Birditt. 2013. The Convoy Model: Explaining Social Relations from a Multidisciplinary Perspective. The Gerontologist 54 (1): 82-92, http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnt118. Go to original source...
  7. Bai, X., S. Yang, M. Knapp. 2018. Sources and Directions of Social Support and LifeSatisfaction among Solitary Chinese Older Adults in Hong Kong: The Mediating Role of Sense of Loneliness. Clinical Interventions in Aging 13: 63. https://dx.doi.org/10.2147%2FCIA.S148334. Go to original source...
  8. Bak, C. K. 2018. Definitions and Measurement of Social Exclusion - A Conceptual and Methodological Review. Advances in Applied Sociology 8 (5): 422-433, http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/aasoci.2018.85025. Go to original source...
  9. Bekhet, A. K., J. A. Zauszniewski. 2012. Mental Health of Elders in Retirement Communities: Is Loneliness a Key Factor? Archives of Psychiatric Nursing 26 (3): 214-224, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apnu.2011.09.007. Go to original source...
  10. Bertoni, M, M. Celidoni, G. Weber. 2015. Does Hearing Impairment Lead to Social Exclusion? Pp 93-102 in Börsch-Supan A, T. Kneip, H. Litwin, M. Myck, G. Weber (eds.). Ageing in Europe - Supporting Policies for an Inclusive Society. Berlin: De Gruyter, https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110444414-010. Go to original source...
  11. Bradshaw, J., P. Kemp, S. Baldwin, A. Rowe. 2004. The Drivers of Social Exclusion. A review of the literature. Report written for the Social Exclusion Unit in the Breaking the Cycle Series. London: Social Exclusion Unit, University of York.
  12. Brick, Y., E. Iekovitch, S. P. Naim. 2018. Local Associations for the Elderly in Israel - Contribution for the Elders [in Hebrew]. Gerontology and Geriatrics, 45 (1): 71-92.
  13. Broese Van Groenou, M. I. B., A. De Boer. 2016. Providing Informal Care in A Changing Society. European Journal of Ageing 13 (3): 271-279, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10433-016-0370-7. Go to original source...
  14. Buffel, T., C. Phillipson, T. Scharf. 2013. Experiences of Neighbourhood Exclusion and Inclusion Among Older People Living in Deprived Inner-City Areas in Belgium and England. Ageing & Society 33 (1): 89-109, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X12000542. Go to original source...
  15. Burholt, V., B. Winter, M. Aartsen, C. Constantinou, L. Dahlberg, V. Feliciano, J. de Jong Gierveld, S. van Regenmortel, C. Waldegrave. 2020. A Critical Review and Development of a Conceptual Model of Exclusion from Social Relations for Older People. European Journal of Ageing 17 (1): 3-19, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10433-019-00506-0. Go to original source...
  16. Cacioppo, J. T., L. C. Hawkley, J. M. Ernst, M. Burleson, G. G. Berntson, B. Nouriani, D. Spiegel. 2006. Loneliness Within a Nomological Net: An Evolutionary Perspective. Journal of Research on Personality 40 (6): 1054-1085, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2005.11.007. Go to original source...
  17. Carstensen, L. L. 1992. Social and Emotional Patterns in Adulthood: Support for Socioemotional Selectivity Theory. Psychology and Aging 7 (3): 331-338, http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.7.3.331. Go to original source...
  18. Chappell, N. L., B. Havens. 1980. Old and Female: Testing the Double Jeopardy Hypothesis. Sociological Quarterly 21 (2): 157-171. Go to original source...
  19. Cheng, S. T., C. K. Lee, A. C. Chan, E. M. Leung, J. J. Lee. 2009. Social Network Types and Subjective Well-Being in Chinese Older Adults. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences 64 (6): 713-722, https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbp075. Go to original source...
  20. Coyle, C. E., E. Dugan. 2012. Social Isolation, Loneliness and Health among Older Adults. Journal of Aging and Health 24 (8): 1346-1363, http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0898264312460275. Go to original source...
  21. Crenshaw, K. 1991. Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist theory, and Antiracist Politics. Pp. 57-80 in Bartlett K. T., R. Kennedy (eds.). Feminist Legal Theory, Readings in Law and Gender. New York: Routledge. Go to original source...
  22. Croda, E. 2015. Pain and Social Exclusion among the European Older People. Pp 313-320 in Börsch-Supan A., T. Kneip, H. Litwin, M. Myck, G. Weber (eds.). Ageing in Europe - Supporting Policies for an Inclusive Society. Berlin: De Gruyter, https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110444414-030. Go to original source...
  23. Dahlberg, L., L. Andersson, K. J. Mckee, C. Lennartsson.2015. Predictors of Loneliness Among Older Women and Men in Sweden: A National Longitudinal Study. Aging & Mental Health 19 (5): 409-417, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2014.944091. Go to original source...
  24. Dahlberg, L., K. J. McKee, J. Fritzell, J. Heap, C. Lennartsson. 2020. Trends and Gender Associations in Social Exclusion in Older Adults in Sweden Over Two Decades. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics 89 (July-August),https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archger.2020.104032. Go to original source...
  25. Dannefer, D. 2003. Cumulative Advantage/Disadvantage and the Life Course: Cross-Fertilizing Age and Social Science Theory. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences 58 (6): S327-S337, https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/58.6.S327. Go to original source...
  26. De Jong Gierveld, J., S. Van Der Pas, N. Keating. 2015. Loneliness of Older Immigrant Groups in Canada: Effects of Ethnic-Cultural Background. Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology 30 (3): 251-268, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10823-015-9265-x. Go to original source...
  27. De Jong Gierveld, J., T. Van Tilburg, P. Dykstra. 2016. New Ways of Theorizing and Conducting Research in the Field of Loneliness and Social Isolation. Pp. 391-404 in Vangelisti, A. L., D. Perlman (eds.). Cambridge Handbook of Personal Relationships. 2nd ed. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. Go to original source...
  28. Dewilde, C. 2003. A Life-Course Perspective on Social Exclusion and Poverty. The British Journal of Sociology 54 (1): 109-128, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0007131032000045923. Go to original source...
  29. Dunn, D., S. Skaggs. 2006. Gender and Paid Work in industrial Nations. Pp. 321-342 in Handbook of the Sociology of Gender. Boston, MA: Springer. Go to original source...
  30. Dykstra, P. A., T. G. Van Tilburg, J. De Jong Gierveld. 2005. Changes in Older Adult Loneliness: Results from a Seven-Year Longitudinal Study. Research on Aging 27 (6): 725-747, https://doi.org/10.1177/0164027505279712. Go to original source...
  31. Dykstra, P. A., T. Fokkema. 2007. Social and Emotional Loneliness Among Divorced and Married Men and Women: Comparing the Deficit and Cognitive Perspectives. Basic and Applied Social Psychology 29 (1): 1-12, https://doi.org/10.1080/01973530701330843. Go to original source...
  32. Elder, Jr., G. H. 1994. Time, Human Agency, and Social Change: Perspectives on the Life Course. Social Psychology Quarterly, 4-15, https://doi.org/10.2307/2786971. Go to original source...
  33. Ellwardt, L., M. Aartsen, T. Van Tilburg.2017. Types of Non-Kin Networks and Their Association with Survival in Late Adulthood: A Latent Class Approach. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences 72 (4): 694-705, http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbw142. Go to original source...
  34. Esping-Andersen, G. 1999. The Social Foundations of Post-Industrial Economies. New York: Oxford University Press, http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/0198742002.001.0001. Go to original source...
  35. Eurostat. 2015. People at Risk of Poverty or Social Exclusion. Statistics Explained. Retrieved 15 June 2018 (https://Ec.Europa.Eu/Eurostat/Statistics-Explained/index.Php?Title=People_At_Risk_of_Poverty_Or_Social_Exclusion).
  36. Fokkema, T., J. De Jong Gierveld, P. A. Dykstra. 2012. Cross-National Differences in Older Adult Loneliness. The Journal of Psychology 146 (1-2): 201-228, http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1080/00223980.2011.631612. Go to original source...
  37. Fuller, H. R., K. J Ajrouch, T. C. Antonucci. 2020. The Convoy Model and Later-Life Family Relationships. Journal of Family Theory & Review 12 (2): 126-146, https://doi.org/10.1111/jftr.12376. Go to original source...
  38. Gallie, D., S. Paugam, S. Jacobs. 2003. Unemployment, Poverty and Social Isolation: Is There a Vicious Circle of Social Exclusion? European Societies 5 (1): 1-32, http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/0199271844.003.0002. Go to original source...
  39. Gerst-Emerson, K., J. Jayawardhana. 2015. Loneliness as a Public Health Issue: The Impact of Loneliness on Health Care Utilization Among Older Adults. American Journal of Public Health 105 (5): 1013-1019, http://dx.doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2014.302427. Go to original source...
  40. Hansen, T., B. Slagsvold. 2016. Late-Life Loneliness in 11 European Countries: Results from the Generations and Gender Survey. Social Indicators Research 129 (1): 445-464, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/S11205-015-1111-6. Go to original source...
  41. Hawkley, L. C., J. T. Cacioppo. 2010. Loneliness Matters: A Theoretical and Empirical Review of Consequences and Mechanisms. Annals of Behavioral Medicine 40 (2): 218-227, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12160-010-9210-8. Go to original source...
  42. Holt-Lunstad, J., T. B. Smith, J. B. Layton. (2010). Social Relationships and Mortality Risk: A Meta-Analytic Review. PLoS Medicine 7 (7): e1000316, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000316. Go to original source...
  43. Jylhä, M., J. Jokela. 1990. Individual Experiences as Cultural - A Cross-Cultural Study on Loneliness Among the Elderly. Ageing & Society 10 (3): 295-315, http://dx.doi.org/ https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X00008308. Go to original source...
  44. Katz, R., A. Lowenstein, J. Phillips, S. O. Daatland. 2005. Theorizing Intergenerational Family Relations: Solidarity, Conflict and Ambivalence in Cross-National Contexts Pp. 393-407 in Bengtson, V, A. C. Acock, K. R. Allen, P. Dilworth-Anderson, D. M. Klein (eds.). Sourcebook of Family Theory & Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781412990172.n16. Go to original source...
  45. Kearns, A., N. Bailey, M. Gannon, M. Livingston, A. Leyland. 2014. 'All in it Together'? Social Cohesion in A Divided Society: Attitudes to Income Inequality and Redistribution in A Residential Context. Journal of Social Policy 43 (3): 453-477, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047279414000063. Go to original source...
  46. Kieny, C., G. Flores, J. Maurer. 2020. Assessing and Decomposing Gender Differences in Evaluative and Emotional Well-Being among Older Adults in the Developing World. Review of Economics of the Household 19 (1): 189-221, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11150-020-09521-y. Go to original source...
  47. Levitas, R., C. Pantazis, E. Fahmy, D. Gordon, E. Lloyd-Reichling, D. Patsios. 2007. The Multi-Dimensional Analysis of Social Exclusion. Bristol: University of Bristol.
  48. Litwin, H. 2001. Social Network Type and Morale in Old Age. The Gerontologist 41 (4): 516-524, http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/geront/41.4.516. Go to original source...
  49. Litwin, H., S. Shiovitz-Ezra. 2006. Network Type and Mortality Risk in Later Life. The Gerontologist 46 (6): 735-743, https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/46.6.735. Go to original source...
  50. Lopata, H. Z. 2006. Gender and Social Roles. Pp. 229-246 in Handbook of the Sociology of Gender. Boston, MA: Springer. Go to original source...
  51. Lowenstein, A. 2007. Solidarity-Conflict and Ambivalence: Testing Two Conceptual Frameworks and their Impact on Quality of Life for Older Family Members. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences 62 (2): S100-S107, http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/geronb/62.2.s100. Go to original source...
  52. Luo, Y., L. C. Hawkley, L. J. Waite, J. T. Cacioppo. 2012. Loneliness, Health, and Mortality in Old Age: A National Longitudinal Study. Social Science and Medicine 74 (6): 907-914, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.11.028. Go to original source...
  53. Mandel, H., M. Shalev. 2009. How Welfare States Shape the Gender Pay Gap: A Theoretical and Comparative Analysis. Social Forces 87 (4): 1873-1911, https://doi.org/10.1353/sof.0.0187. Go to original source...
  54. Masi, C. M., H. Y. Chen, L. C. Hawkley, J. T. Cacioppo. 2011. A Meta-Analysis of Interventions to Reduce Loneliness. Personality and Social Psychology Review 15 (3): 219-266, http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1088868310377394. Go to original source...
  55. McCutcheon, A. L. 1987. Latent Class Analysis. No. 64. Sage University Paper: Series Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences. Newbury Park, London: Sage.
  56. McLanahan, S. S., E. L. Kelly. 2006. The Feminization of Poverty. Pp. 127-145 in Handbook of the Sociology of Gender. Boston, MA: Springer. Go to original source...
  57. McPherson, M., L. Smith-Lovin, M. E. Brashears. 2006. Social Isolation in America: Changes in Core Discussion Networks Over Two Decades. American Sociological Review 71 (3): 353-375, https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240607100301. Go to original source...
  58. Mikulionienė, S., Gaižaukaitė, I., Morkevičius, V. 2021. Patterns of Social Embeddedness in Late Adulthood: Gender and Other Covariates. Gender a výzkum 22 (1), this issue. Go to original source...
  59. Moffatt, S., N. Glasgow. 2009. How Useful Is the Concept of Social Exclusion When Applied to Rural Older People in the United Kingdom and the United States? Regional Studies 43 (10): 1291-1303, https://doi.org/10.1080/00343400903002697. Go to original source...
  60. Muthén, L. K., B. O. Muthén. 1998-2015. Mplus User's Guide. Seventh Edition. Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.
  61. Perlman, D., L. A. Peplau. 1982. Theoretical Approaches to Loneliness. Pp. 123-134 in Peplau, L. A., Perlman, D. (eds.). Loneliness: A Sourcebook of Current Theory, Research and Therapy. New York: Wiley.
  62. Precupetu, I., M. Aartsen, M. Vasile. 2019. Social Exclusion and Mental Wellbeing in Older Romanians. Social Inclusion 7 (3): 4-16, http://dx.doi.org/10.17645/SI.V7I3.2008. Go to original source...
  63. Scharf, T., C. Phillipson, A. E. Smith. 2005. Social Exclusion of Older People in Deprived Urban Communities of England. European Journal of Ageing 2 (2): 76-87, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10433-005-0025-6. Go to original source...
  64. Shankar, A., S. B. Rafnsson, A. Steptoe. 2015. Longitudinal Associations Between SocialConnections and Subjective Wellbeing in the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing. Psychology & Health 30 (6): 686-698, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2014.979823. Go to original source...
  65. Steptoe, A., A. Shankar, P. Demakakos, J. Wardle. 2013. Social Isolation, Loneliness, and All-Cause Mortality in Older Men and Women. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110 (15): 5797-5801, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1219686110. Go to original source...
  66. Stockard, J. 2006. Gender Socialization. Pp. 215-227 in Handbook of the Sociology of Gender. Boston, MA: Springer. Go to original source...
  67. Sundström, G., E. Fransson, B. Malmberg, A. Davey. 2009. Loneliness among Older Europeans. European Journal of Ageing 6 (4): 267-275, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10433-009-0134-8. Go to original source...
  68. Thurston, R. C., L. D. Kubzansky. 2009. Women, Loneliness, and Incident Coronary Heart Disease. Psychosomatic Medicine 71 (8): 836-842, http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1097/PSY.0b013e3181b40efc. Go to original source...
  69. Tolkacheva, N., M. Broese Van Groenou, A. De Boer, T. Van Tilburg. 2011. The Impact of Informal Care-Giving Networks on Adult Children's Caregiver Burden. Ageing & Society 31 (1): 34-51, http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X10000711. Go to original source...
  70. Tomaka, J., S. Thompson, R. Palacios. 2006. The Relation of Social Isolation, Loneliness, and Social Support to Disease Outcomes among the Elderly. Journal of Aging and Health 18 (3): 359-384, http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0898264305280993. Go to original source...
  71. Tsakloglou, P., F. Papadopoulos. 2002. Aggregate Level and Determining Factors of Social Exclusion in Twelve European Countries. Journal of European Social Policy 12 (3): 211-225, https://doi.org/10.1177/0952872002012003394. Go to original source...
  72. Van Tilburg, T. G. 1998. Losing and Gaining in Old Age: Changes in Personal Network Size and Social Support in a Four-Year Longitudinal Study. Journal of Gerontology 53 (6): S313-S323, https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/53B.6.S313. Go to original source...
  73. Van Tilburg, T. G., M. J. Aartsen, S. Van Der Pas. 2015. Loneliness after Divorce: A Cohort Comparison among Dutch Young-Old Adults. European Sociological Review 31 (3): 243-252, https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcu086. Go to original source...
  74. Van Regenmortel, S., L. De Donder, A. S. Smetcoren, D. Lambotte, N. De Witte, D. Verté. 2018. Accumulation of Disadvantages: Prevalence and Categories of Old-Age Social Exclusion in Belgium. Social Indicators Research 140 (3): 1173-1194, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/S11205-017-1817-8. Go to original source...
  75. Van Regenmortel, S., B. Winter, A. Thelin, V. Burholt, L. De Donder. 2021. Exclusion from Social Relations Among Older People in Rural Britain and Belgium: A Cross-National Exploration Taking a Life-Course and Multilevel Perspective. Pp. 83-98 in Walsh, K., T. Scharf, S. Van Regenmortel, A. Wanka (eds.). Social Exclusion in Later Life, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-51406-8_7. Go to original source...
  76. Victor, C. R., A. Bowling. 2012. A Longitudinal Analysis of Loneliness among Older People in Great Britain. The Journal of Psychology 146 (3): 313-331, https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2011.609572. Go to original source...
  77. Viruell-Fuentes, E. A., P. Y. Miranda, S. Abdulrahim. 2012. More Than Culture: Structural Racism, Intersectionality Theory, and Immigrant Health. Social Science & Medicine 75 (12): 2099-2106, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.12.037. Go to original source...
  78. Walsh, K., E. O'Shea, T. Scharf. 2019. Rural Old-Age Social Exclusion: A Conceptual Framework on Mediators of Exclusion across the Life Course. Ageing & Society 40 (11): 2311-2337, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X19000606. Go to original source...
  79. Walsh, K., T. Scharf, N. Keating. 2017. Social Exclusion of Older Persons: A Scoping Review and Conceptual Framework. European Journal of Ageing 14 (1): 81-98, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10433-018-0483-2. Go to original source...
  80. Wenger, G. C. 1991. A Network Typology: From Theory to Practice. Journal of Aging Studies 5 (2): 147-162, https://doi.org/10.1016/0890-4065(91)90003-B. Go to original source...
  81. Wenger, G. C., R. Davies, S. Shahtahmasebi, A. Scott. 1996. Social Isolation and Loneliness in Old Age: Review and Model Refinement. Ageing & Society 16 (3): 333-358, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X00003457. Go to original source...
  82. Yang, K., C. Victor. 2011. Age and Loneliness in 25 European Nations. Ageing & Society 31 (8): 1368-1388, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X1000139X. Go to original source...

This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC 4.0), which permits non-comercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original publication is properly cited. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.